CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Author: Prince Foday

 

 

STAGES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT FROM BIRTH TO NINETEEN YEARS

Birth to 3 Month

Physical Development

The movements of the child are smooth with arms and legs. Child can push heads up when on their tummy and hold head up.

Language, Communication and Literacy Development

The head of the child is responsive to sound. The child can make babbling sound and coos.

Social, Emotional and Behaviour Development

The child makes efforts to look at parents. He or she can calm down by sucking fingers.

Intellectual Development

 The child begins to cry if activities are boring and monotonous. He or she recognises things from a distance and follow trends through eye movement. The child becomes cognisance of faces.

 

 3-6 MONTHS

 Physical Development

The child can push up to elbows when on stomach, can lift hand to mouth, capable of holding and shaking toys and move to swinging toys. He or she can roll from tummy to back, push down on legs when feet are on hard surface and can hold head without support. The child can sit without support, support weight on legs when standing and capable of bouncing.

Language, Communication and Literacy Development

Child cries to express the feeling pain and hunger, chat by showing expression and imitate sounds he or she hears and can start to say some consonants like “b” and so on. The child produce sounds to convey pleasure and displeasure, become responsive to own name, follows parents in making sounds, and produce chains of vowels like “oh”, “eh” and so forth.

Social, Emotional and Behaviour Development

The child can replicate facial expression and some other movements, will like playing with people and might cry when the play ends, can impulsively smile at people, and can be responsive to familiar faces and might show if someone is a stranger. He or she would like to view him or herself in a mirror, can be responsive to other people’s emotions and will develop the passion to play with others.

 Intellectual Development

The child can recognise distance objects and builds familiarity with people, can watch faces closely, being observant of moving objects, can simultaneously use both eyes and reach out for objects, and be responsive to affection. He or she can show signs of pleasure and sadness and pass things from left to right hand, develops curiosity, and seek for things. The child can further view objects nearby, go for them and bring objects to the mouth.

 

 6-12 MONTHS

 Physical Development

The child is capable of creeping, stand or sits without support, can be in a sitting position. He or she can hold on to an object, capable of standing independently and take some steps without holding on an object.

Language, Communication and Literacy Development

The child can utilise fingers to point at objects, imitate the sounds and gesture of others, can make different sounds like “mama”, “baba” and so on. He or she can be assertive by saying “no” or wave hands and can be responsive to requests.

Social, Emotional and Behaviour Development

The child can make decide on their best toys, can be attached to familiar adults, shy of strangers, play games, use their arms or legs to a support their dressing, and repeat sounds to seek attention. He or she can make effort to hand over a book to hear a story, express fear in certain situations, build the situation of favourite objects and people, and would want assurance from their parents and scared of strangers.

Intellectual Development

The child takes things by using the index and thumb fingers, capable of moving objects from one hand to the other, place objects in his or her mouth, play around and search for hiding objects and can watch things as they fall. He or she can follow easy direction, poke with index finger, put objects in and out of container, pound objects together and rightly start to use objects.

 

 1-2 YEARS

Physical Development

The child can use spoon to eat and drink from a cup, capable of undressing. He or she can drag object while walking and can run up and down steps without supervision.

Language, Communication and Literacy Development

The child can point what is needed by someone, capable of expressing “no” by shaking head, say various single words and follow easy instructions. He or she can say sentences with two or four words, express the name of familiar things and points to objects or pictures when they are named.

Social, Emotional and Behaviour Development

The child can explore with parental supervision, point at interesting things to others, and cling on caregivers in unfamiliar situations, imitate by feeding a doll, show affection to familiar people and frightened of strangers. He or she can show outburst of displeasure, hand over things to others in play time, can be stimulated when with other children and show disobedient behaviour.

Intellectual Development

The child can follow verbal instructions, sit down when told to sit down, write on his or her own, point to body parts, show concern for doll by pretending to feed and seek attention by pointing. He or she can have knowledge about ordinary things like spoon, brush, etc., can identify the name of pictures, build towers with toy blocks, and do simple puzzles, read, and complete sentences, identify shapes and colours, and find hidden objects,

 

 3-5 YEARS

Physical Development

The child can independently walk up and down stairs, ride a tricycle, and easily run and climb wells. He or she can catch a bouncing ball sometimes, stand on one foot and hop for few seconds.

Language, Communication and Literacy Development

The child can take part in conversion by using two to three sentences, communicate clearly for strangers to understand most of the time, and communicate words like “me” and plurals like “cat”. He or she can name a friend and say first name, have knowledge about words like “under”, “in”, etc., name things that familiar, and follow commands with 2 or 3 steps.

Social, Emotional and Behaviour Development

The child can dress and undress him or herself, be offended with changes in routine, and can easily disconnect from mum and dad. He or she can show affection for friends, take turns in games, and imitate adults and friends.

Intellectual Development

The child can turn door handle and build towers with more than six toy blocks, turn the pages of books one at a time. He or she can copy a drawing with a pencil and can count some figures and can do three- or four-pieces puzzle.

 5-7 YEARS

Physical Development

The child can climb and swings, capable of using toilet on his or her own, and use cutleries unsupervised. He or she can skip and somersault and stand on feet for 10 seconds or longer.

 Language, Communication and Literacy Development

The child can express names and address, use tenses, have interesting thoughts and opinions to share, capable participating in conversations and can ask questions to gain information, and make friends and engage with people outside their immediate family. He or she can learn to separate themselves from others and have separation anxiety, being self-assertive, try to figure out their place in the world, and learning about empathy and making efforts to understand the feelings of others.

Social, Emotional and Behaviour Development

The child can be very demanding and sometimes cooperative, displays more level of independence, decipher between real and mmake-believe. He or she can be aware of gender, sing, dance, and act, more likely to accept rules and would want to please friends and want to imitate friends.

Intellectual Development

The child can be aware of everyday things, say food and money. He or she can solve mathematical problems, write numbers and letters, and draw images and count numbers.

 

7-12 YEARS

Physical Development

The child is independent for physical activities. He or she will be able to jump, skip, walk on her toes, use scissors, gain general athletics skills, and improve coordination skills.

Language, Communication and Literacy Development

The child can show the differences between left and right. He or she improves vocabulary (say 50,000 words by the age of 12), tenses, contest incomplete sentences, and resorts to social speeches than being egocentric.

Social, Emotional and Behaviour Development

The child can build more in-depth understanding of how social interaction works, starts to enjoy teamwork, and understand what it means to contribute to task. He or she can show competence, sexual feeling is not obvious, and become self-assertive and self-regulatory.

 Intellectual Development

The child can solve problems without adult input, decipher between right and wrong and become more logical.

 

 12-16 YEARS

Physical Development

The child develops primary and secondary social attributes. Ten years plus becomes the start of sexual maturity. There is evidence of Adolescent growth spurts (girls before boys).

Language, Communication and Literacy Development

Child communication becomes the focus of relationships. He or she takes up personal speech pattern.

Social, Emotional and Behaviour Development

The child builds cross-gender relationships, or otherwise. Compliance to rules and regulations become significant. The issue of identity becomes significant. Organised sporting activities lessens for many.

 Intellectual Development

The child will have the ability to understand past, present, and future. He or she can deal with opinion or fact, develop problem-solving skills, and understand abstracts.

 

 16-19 YEARS

 Physical Development

The child has necessarily completed physical maturity and the likelihood of acting on sexual desires enhances.

Language, Communication and Literacy Development

The child can communicate like an adult, manage their job or homework without supervision, and capable of driving a car safely. In education setting, they can interpret concrete and abstract thoughts, fully understand grammatical rules, punctuations, and can read and write sentences with complex structures. They can calm down by playing video games, read and browse through social media.

Social, Emotional and Behaviour Development

The child has confusing feelings about independence and dependence, might appear angry, moody, lonely, stubborn, confused, lonely, impulsive, and self-centred, and may be concern about failure. He or she might strongly involve in romantic relationship, usually have many friends and few confidants, can talk about marriage, and may fluctuate in maturity. The child may sometimes feel that parents are too nosy. Relationship with parents will span from friendly to hostile.

Intellectual Development

The child can seriously be interested about the future and begin to combine knowledge that may lead to decisions about the future. He or she might be short of information or self-assurance concerning personal skills and ability.

THE IMPACT OF EXTERNAL FACTORS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE 

Poverty and deprivation

Poverty and deprivation have a direct relationship with the development of the children and young people. Children and young people from financially challenged or low-income family can have an  effect on their educational performance and development. Child Poverty Action Group (2021) proposed that the entire areas of children’s life are unpleasantly influenced by poverty, school, and friendships, and so forth. The organisation further expressed that children living in poverty are usually known to face humiliation and have the feeling of exclusion. It is a truism that children and young people from low-income background are deprived largely of physiological needs ( basic needs) and other needs appropriate for their wellbeing and sound frame of mind. Children from poor family settings are deprived from enjoying their childhood and meant to experience suppressed aspirations. Children from overcrowded households due to poverty are prone to high health risk and many domestic challenges that can have an impact on their emotional, physical wellbeing and educational achievements, and development in general.

Family environment and background

Children and young people are meant to be faced with a situation that is not only defined by relationship with family members but society, friends, and strangers. Although family background (financial status, educational level, social skills) plays a significant role, the presence of other stakeholders can influence the development of the child and young people. Children from family background with strong financial status, high educational level and appreciable social skills can develop faster. The parents’ strong social skills through the acceptance of the fact that society has a stake in the development of the child can build the right growth environment for the child. Children deserve social protection and parents of the child should understand that society has a role towards the development of the child and the young. Children and young people rely on their family and society. The right family and society support can have a positive impact on their general wellbeing and development (ahpoohnjuvian, 2014). Children and young people rely on their family and society. Children deserve social protection and parents of the child and young people should understand that society has a role towards their development.

Personal choices

Freedom of choice is great within the context of human rights. However, children and young people need guidance in their personal choices. Making the wrong choice or decision can be costly and have a spread effect on development. Children and young people’s personal choices such as food, groups, friendship, academic environment, and extra-curricular activities will impact their development as they grow (Graduate Way, 2021). The wrong choice of food that is unhealthy can have a negative impact on the health of the child. Being in the wrong social group or peer group or around inappropriate friends and family members will affect performance and that can enable them to imbibe a culture that will affect their social image. An academic environment or extracurricular activity that does not decipher between weak and strong students can impact on the performance of outstanding students. Providing the enabling academic or extracurricular environment for students with outstanding performance can influence the performance of children and young people. Children and young people need to be guided or supported in their personal choices and environment that suits them the best.

 

Look after/Care Status

Children and young people that are looked after by people outside their family setting can affect their development and mindset. Children and young people that are impacted by physical and emotional abuse will lack trust in the care of others outside their past parenting experience. Protective lineage builds a strong pillar for understanding oneself and others, enhances healthy self-reliance and positive interactions with others, support one’s resilience, and serves as a psychological model that directs both present and future experiences, enlightening one’s expectations, beliefs, emotions and having the ability to build successive healthy relationships throughout one’s life span (Kvarnstrom, 2018).  Growing up in an abusive family and the trauma that accompanies it can dent the trust of a child and young people, even where someone outside their family is given the care responsibility. The healing process takes time, and it takes time for the child and young person to adapt to a new care scenario. Children and young people from a caring family or that are well looked after will have a positive impact on their development. They will have a sound frame of mind to concentrate on their education, can unleash their potentials and perform better.

 

Education

Education has a significant impact on children and young people. It does not only assist them in shaping their personality but helpful when dealing with real life situation. There is a shift in mentality that education does not only provide knowledge and earning money but can assist in personal development. After our physiological needs, education is a necessity of life (EducationWorld, 2021). Education is an important necessity of life after food shelter and clothing. It helps children and young people to develop healthy thought and improve their cognitive ability. Education should focus on satisfying the mental aspect, social aspect and physical aspect of children and young people. Education can broaden the horizon of children and young people in different areas like people, literacy, politics, history and many more. It provides the outlet for them to socialise, meet different challenges and acquire new ideas. The school environment provides the avenue for them to use their energy to the best of their capability and enable them to unleash hidden physical talents through extracurricular activities.  

 

THE INFLUENCE OF PERSONAL FACTORS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE 

Health status

Biological factors such as gender, hormones, brain chemistry and genetic composition can influence the development of the child and young people. Experiencing serious adversity at the early part of life can build up physical, emotional, and intellectual challenges (Harvard University Centre on the Developing Child, 2021). A high level of stress can affect the educational performance of the child and young people. Adult’s positive and responsive relationship with children and young people can have a dual beneficial effect of developing a healthy brain and combating stress. Additionally, prevailing health conditions can affect the development of the children and young people. The development of a baby can be influenced by maternal consumption habit. A mother that takes drugs, smokes and drinks alcohol during pregnancy is likely  to have an infection (say, rubella) that can affect the development of the child. The toxic consumption habit of the mother during pregnancy can stifle the physical and mental capacity of the child and young people.

Disability

Neurodevelopment refers to a  various group of situations that start in the early years of child’s lives and that will have an adverse effect on their lives and development. People develop in their own way and that should be considered when dealing with children and young people. Children with development impediment desire immediate help and early diagnose and intervention can have an important influence on a child’s ability to learn new skills and minimise the cost of intervention as time unfolds (Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021). The early diagnose and intervention of a child’s neurological problem can have a positive impact on the development of the child. It would help in reducing cost as well as provide the desired support to their welfare and development. Cerebral palsy and spinal bifida are different forms of disability. Cerebral Palsy is a neurological problem that affects the brain and general nervous system. Spinal Bifida is a health condition that exists from birth and can affect the child’s cognitive, physical, social, emotional, and social development.

Sensory impairment

This is evident when one of the senses (taste, touch, smell, hearing, spatial awareness, and sight) is not functioning. A momentous hearing loss can have a huge influence on the child’s development, specifically on their social interaction skills and communication. A hearing impairment is a situation where speech is unclear and words not rightly articulated, and such sensory impairment can affect the development of the child.  Children with hearing loss are meant to use sign language or a combination of speech and sign language, and unless necessary action is taken to make them feel confident and inclusive in social situations, they are likely to be withdrawn and on the edge of other children (teach Early Years, 2021). Children with sensory impairment are part of our society and should be provided the platform to feel confident and not be on the edge with other children. Allowing them to feel withdrawn can have a negative impact on their development and deprive them from unleashing latent potential.

 

Learning difficulties

Children and young people with learning difficulty will find it challenging to achieve academic development. Children with disability such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyspraxia and dyslexia will have problem with their cognitive development. It is appropriate to identify and recognise such learning difficulties and provide the needed support. Those with learning difficulties demonstrate an uneven pattern of development in terms of perception, academic progress, physical development, and language (Child Development Institute, 2019). Such a skew pattern of development requires educational support from a special educational needs (SEN) coordinator. Children and young people with special needs will feel different when they are stigmatised. Their emotional, social and wellbeing will be influenced by a show of stigmatisation by people around them. Learning difficulties are because of emotional problems and mental impediments. There are disparities in the development of the child, as children within the same age group develop at different rates-some develop at a slower pace than others. It is important to be cognisance of such variations in the development of the child and ensure that the desired support is provided to those with special needs. There should be an inclusive and fair child development approach.

 

THE EFFECT AND INFLUENCE OF THEORIES ON CURRENT PRACTICES 

Cognitive

Cognitive development is about how the mind thinks and learns throughout the early years of a child’s life. It is a major area that can influence current practices. Cognitive development can assist

parents/carers/educationists to delineate between a child and young people’s behaviour that demand reward or punishment. Children and young people should be able to understand such distinction as that can be helpful in mitigating bad behaviour. Jean Piaget, a psychologist, expressed that children are meant to go through different stages of cognitive development, and all are dissimilar from each other and affected by nurture and nature (Universal Class, 2021). The point raised by Jean Piaget should be embraced by all concern with the duty of care for children and young people. Children and young people should be nurtured to embrace acceptable behaviour and rewarded for that but that should not be looked at as a form of bribery. Current practices should be able to influence children to understand acceptable behaviour and influence their sense of reasoning.

Humanist

Humility helps in caring for children and young people and the current practices should be cognisance of that. Children and young people desire to be rewarded or inspired for doing their best. Maslow’s humanist approach stressed on the insatiability of human needs and drew the link between personality and motivation. Bartlett et.al (2006) advanced that the five hierarchy of needs suggested by Abraham Maslow are physiological needs (food, shelter and clothing), safety needs (the need to be freed from physical damage), social needs (the need to belong and approved by others), ego-status needs (the need for self-confidence, prestige and power) and self-actualisation needs (the need for self-fulfilment or unleash one’s skills and talents). In my opinion and from evidence, current practices are streamlined towards such hierarchy of needs. Children and young people can provide their best where such hierarchy of needs are satisfactorily met. Humility matters in the dispensation of services and Maslow’s humanist approach provides a significant template for service providers, and for parents/carers to deliver a humanist approach to the development of the child and young people.

Operant Conditioning

School should be the platform for teaching good behaviour and imbibing the culture of politeness to children and young people. Discipline matters in school, and it is a way of teaching good behaviour. Operant conditioning is a theory developed by Skinner as method of learning using rewards and punishments, and that the conditioning is embraced by the principle that reward and punishment have a link that leads to learning (Sincero, 2021).  The theory stressed that operant conditioning is a type of learning that clings on the likelihood that a response will be achieved as a result reinforcement. Operant condition is an approach to learning where the outcome of responses determines the likelihood of it being repeated.  Reinforcement or stimuli can be positive (its application can increase the probability of a specific behaviour...reward through food, grades, praise, medals, etc.), and negative (its removal increasing the probability of a specific behaviour...exempting students from a homework when the undergo a particular punishment).  The three types of responses that can influence behaviour are neutral operant (responses from a specific punishment that neither decreases nor increases the chances of behaviour being repeated), Reinforcers (reactions from a particular punishment that increases the probability of behaviour being repeated) and punishers (reactions from a specific scenario that minimises the probability of a behaviour being repeated). Punitive measures on children and young people that lead to behaviour not being repeated are ideal for the learning environment and their development.

 

Social Learning

Social learning is a form of learning that was developed through social network. The theory was developed in the 1950’s by a psychologist Albert Bandura and his doctorate student, Richard Walters, and the concept of social learning is that humans improve their learning process through mutual learning (Zoe, 2021). Zoe further stated that Bandura and Walters discovered that by sharing ideas and perspectives and monitoring the process, people can learn effectively and better retain information.  As the adage goes, “two heads are better than one”. The theory has influenced current learning as institutions have developed teamwork or encourage groups to share ideas together. The theory of social learning had improved its significance through the emergence of social media (Facebook, twitter, WhatsApp, zoom, etc.) and online learning. Learning is a continuous process. The use of social media has influenced ongoing learning from a distance. Online learning has made people to acquire knowledge from a distance and enhanced employability. Zoom has made it possible for presentations or meetings to be done from a distance and reduced the cost on institutions. 

THE TYPES OF CHANGES OR DIFFICULTIES THAT MAY AFFECT A CHILD'S DEVELOPMENT OR WELLBEING, AND WHEN IT IS APPROPRIATE TO REFER TO COLLEAGUES FOR SPECIALISTS SUPPORT 

Economic Instability

Economic instability due to parental or carer financial hardship can affect a child’s development. Children from financially challenged families can have cognitive and emotional problems. The financial hardship can affect their academic performance and they would not have the support needed for learning. Identifying children with financial hardship and referring them for specialist support can mitigate the spread effect of the hardship on their academic performance.

 

Employment Instability

Some children may be unfortunate to have parents or carers with unemployment problem. There may not be much household income to meet the physiological and academic needs of the child, and that can affect their development. The employment instability of the parent or carer can affect a child’s domestic and external behaviours and can lead to weak academic performance. Specialist support is needed for such children.

 

Family Instability

Family instability will have an impact on child behaviour and academic performance. Children and young people desire continuous care giving to establish safe lineage, need parent/caregiver support, expect parent/caregiver to be role models, need constant residential stability and support from educational institutions to achieve success (Sandstrom and Huerta, 2013). It is inevitable that the absence of a child’s secured attachment, support, stable residence, and the right platform for academic success demands specialist assistance. Children and young people are meant to reveal more negative behaviour with the absence of material, emotional and social support.

 

Instability in out of home contexts: School and Childcare

The constant movements of families from one region to the other or changing schools can affect the development of the child and young people. Changes in care arrangements can further affect the stability of child and young people. Continuous changes in educational setting can minimise their social proficiency and hinder academic performance. Specialist support is needed where there is evidence of such child and young people school and care instability.

 

References

Nzeh, V.and Swain, E. (2021) School-Age Kids. Available at: https://www.verywellfamily.com/school-age-kids-4157368#:~:text=The%20developmental%20stages%20of%20childhood%20are%20usually%20divided,and%2018-year-olds%29.%20Child%20Development%3A%20Milestones%20and%20Parenting%20Tips (Accessed 25 August 2021)

Decker, C.A. (1988) Children: The Early Years. USA: The Goodheart-Willcox Company, INC.

Lindon, J. (2007) Understanding Child Development: Linking Theory and Practice. London: Hodder & Stroughton Educational

Child Poverty Action Group (2021) The Effects of Poverty. Available at: https://cpag.org.uk/child-poverty/effects-poverty (Accessed 22 September 2021)

Ahpoohnjuvian (2014) https://www.studymode.com/essays/Family-Background-Influences-How-a-49043403.html#cite-this-document (Accessed 23 September 2021)

GraduateWay (2021) Understand the Kind of influences that affect children and young people’s development. Available at: https://graduateway.com/understand-the-kinds-of-influences-that-affect-children-and-young-peoples development/#:~:text=Children%E2%80%99s%20personal%20choices%20such%20as%20friendship%20groups%2C%20extra-curricular,them%20to%20make%20the%20right%20choices%20for%20themselves. (Accessed 24 September 2021)

Kvarnstrom, E. (2018) How the Trauma of Childhood Abuse Affects Interpersonal Relationships, and How to Begin Healing. https://www.bridgestorecovery.com/blog/trauma-childhood-abuse-affects-interpersonal-relationships-begin-healing/ (Accessed 25 September 2021)

Harvard University Centre on the Developing Child (2021) Three Principles to Improve Outcomes for Children and Families. Available at: https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/three-early-childhood-development-principles-improve-child-family-outcomes/ (Accessed 26 September 2021)

Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2021) Facts About Development Disabilities. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/developmentaldisabilities/facts.html (Accessed 27 September 2021)

Teach Early Years (2021) SEN: Understanding sensory impairment. Available at: https://www.teachearlyyears.com/a-unique-child/view/sen-understanding-sensory-impairment (Accessed 28 September 2021)

Child Development Institute (2019) About Learning Disability. Available at: https://childdevelopmentinfo.com/learning/learning_disabilities/#gs.ddglxt (Accessed 5 October 2021)

Universal Class (2021) The Study of Cognitive Development in Understanding Child Development. Available at https://www.universalclass.com/articles/psychology/child-development/the-study-of-cognitive-development-in-understanding-child-development.htm#:~:text=Cognitive%20development%20is%20a%20major%20domain%20of%20early,%28e.g.%2C%20to%20follow%20directions%29%20based%20on%20this%20https://www.funderstanding.com/educators/jean-piaget-cognitive-development-in-the-classroom/ (Accessed 10 October 2021)

Bartlett et.al (2006) Business: The Ultimate Resource. New Edn. London: A & C Black Publishers Ltd

Sincero, S.M. (2021) Operant Conditioning: To Reward or to Punish? Available at: https://explorable.com/operant-conditioning (Accessed 21 October 2021)

Zoe, E. (2021) Social learning: What it is and how to apply it in the workplace. Available at: https://www.talentlms.com/blog/social-learning-in-elearning/ (Accessed 30 October 2021)

Sandstrom, H. and Huerta, S. (2013) The Negative Effects of Instability on Child Development: A Research Synthesis. Available at https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/32706/412899-The-Negative-Effects-of-Instability-on-Child-Development-A-Research-Synthesis.PDF (Accessed 31 October 2021)

Harvard University Centre on the Developing Child (2021) 8 things to Remember about Child Development. Available at https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/8-things-remember-child-development/  (Accessed 01 November 2021)

 

 Author: 

Prince Foday 

Professional Freelance Journalist 

 

 

 

 

WORKING WITH INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS

Author: Prince Foday

 

Explaining How to Select and Prepare Resources for Planned Learning Activities

 

The selection and preparation of resources for planned learning activities are based on the Department for Education guidelines. The guidelines established are that schools must avoid using teaching and learning resources developed by inappropriate organisations; that schools must be sensitive in teaching about cultural and religious beliefs and practices; and that teaching and learning materials must be engaging and challenging and not controversial, offensive and of obscene nature to students and the wider community.  The guidelines established that schools must be open to objections about utilising specific teaching and learning materials. 

Inappropriate institutions should never be considered in preparing resources for planned teaching and learning activities and those delivering lessons should be cognisance of the blacklisted list of organisations. Some of the blacklisted institutions are tobacco companies, businesses involved in the promotion and sale of alcohol, companies that are involved in the promotion and sale of weapons, businesses that encourage unhealthy food choices for children and young people, etc. 

It is ideal to be highly sensitive to the content or imagery used for the planned lesson, say the image of the prophet Muhammad should not be used in the teaching of a lesson. Planned teaching and learning resources should be within appropriate cultural and religious contexts. 

The selection of planned learning resources should not be offensive to the students but challenging, engaging and beneficial to the student. 

There is a need to make provision for correctness to objections raised about planned teaching and learning materials. 

 

Describing Learning Support Strategies to Use to Meet the Needs of Individuals and Groups

 

The learning support strategies that are significant to meeting the needs of individuals and groups are jigsaws; turn and talk; polling; quick write; summative assessment; formative assessments; problem-based learning; project-based learning; gamification; differential learning; peer training muddiest point; interleaving; tests and quizzes; and think, pair and share. 

Jigsaws develops the critical thinking of learners. This is where students are organised into smaller groups to quietly read a selected passage of course material and share what they have learnt with other groups in the class. Participants in each group are allowed to answer questions on what the big idea is? What does the idea mean, and why important? How applied for a better understanding of the topic? What part of the passage that can be agreed with and disagreed with? What questions can be raised from the passage?

Turn and Talk is used in class. That is where the teacher raises a clear question for learners and then instructs them to select a partner to share their thoughts on the topic before discussing the idea with the whole group. 

Polling is utilised by raising a question for students to answer. A poll is taken to ascertain the number of students who raise their hands for specific answers. The polling method is used to determine student's views about a particular topic and provides an idea of whether there is a need for additional explanation. 

Quick write is used as a learning support strategy in a classroom by raising a prompt and allowing learner to provide their thought on a topic in five minutes. Quick write is used to allow students to have their thought on a new topic, provide the platform for learners to unveil prior understanding of the topic, and grade learners for performance record purposes. 

A summative assessment is used as way of evaluating the in-depth knowledge of students about a subject. Students are given assignments on a subject and their performance is assessed through a defined grading system. Summative assessments are provided to support students’ course activities and performance in a specific subject. 

Formative assessment is used to guide the learning of students and give feedback on the performance of each student in the classroom. The feedback is significant as it helps in improving strategies for the delivery of lessons. The strategy helps to unveil the strengths and weaknesses of students. 

Problem-based learning is used to expose learners to real-life situations. It support students to understand the world around them by connecting learning to practical happens in our society. 

Project-based learning is implemented by giving students a specific project to work on and allowing them to make a PowerPoint presentation in the classroom. 

Gamification is used as a learning strategy to reward learners for a job well done and compromise that with the teaching. Students are provided games that are important for improving their academic skills; helping build their competitiveness among peers and using a point-based system for completing a task. 

Differential training is used to tailor learning to meet different needs. That is done by updating the learning environment, product, process and content. 

Peer training is applied to engage students to learn from each other. This is done by bringing up topics that students are perplexed about coupled with the chance to brainstorm in small groups. The team leader in each group will share the ideas of their group with others in the smaller groups and then come up with a collective agreement on the topic. 

The muddiest point is used to identify the most challenging topics that learners do not comprehend. The approach is meant to provide an explicit understanding of the elephant in the room or difficult task.

Tests and quizzes are applied as a learning strategy by providing students either a quiz and grade them by marking of their papers. The standard learning practice is that students are given both individual and group tests and quizzes. The average mark from the individual and group test or quiz is the standardised base of assessment. 

Think-pair-share provide students with the stage to organise their ideas and share the ideas with partners and then the entire class. Students are provided the platform to independently think of an idea, pair with small groups of colleagues to provide their views about the idea and thereafter share their thought with the broader class. 

 

Clarifying How to Ensure the Learning Environment Meets Health, Safety, Security, and Access Requirements of Individuals and the Group as a Whole

 

The important health and safety issues in any classroom, including my own classroom are: class size, layout, space limitation, and the behaviour and maturity of students. Classroom health and safety is a significant concern for my learning environment and meets the legal requirements of health, safety, security, access requirements of individuals and groups.  Every school should have a strong risk assessment in place meant to curb potential hazards for students, staff, and visitors. The measures taken to avert the risk of danger and hazards are to prevent slips and trips, risks linked with the use of electrical equipment, and risks associated with poor ventilation and temperature.

Slips and trips should be of important concern to school and the classroom setting. The classroom floors and walkways should always be kept clean and devoid of obstruction. Handrails and steps should be well looked after. Floors must be kept clean and not slippery, even entry points. Schools must have a checklist of slips and trips by focusing on ensuring that gangways between desks are clearly maintained, robust about maintaining no trailing of electrical leads and cables; have spontaneous action in place for potential spillages, have enough bright light for access and safe exit and ensuring that internal flooring is in the right good condition, floor windows are above ground and well secured to avoid falls, high-level windows have window openers and where necessary secured step ladders are available.

There should be provisions for electric equipment checks. Electric equipment is only used when they are in good condition. Interestingly, I took a personal laminator to my school some time back. The caretaker had to check it before use in the classroom. My school is responsive to the checklist of ensuring that electrical cables are routed to prevent trips, ensures that any faulty electrical equipment be replaced, that electrical equipment is checked at intervals to facilitate it safe usage, and ensure that electrical cables, plug sockets and switches are in good repair.

Ventilation and temperature should be of significant concern for schools and classroom settings. In my school, we ensure that there is natural ventilation. Blinds and window dressing are available based on the temperature. We use blinds to prevent reflection from the sun in the classroom. The child and young people’s ability to learn will be affected when the classroom is too hot and too cold. We respond to the checklist concerning ventilation and temperature by ensuring that windows have blinds to protect learners and staff from heat and glare from the sun, ensuring that an acceptable temperature is maintained, and maintaining natural ventilation.

Fixtures, fittings, and furniture are dangerous to my school and classroom. We ensure that hot equipment like radiators are protected to prevent learners from the risk of burn, window restrictors are fitted in on the upper floor windows and ensure that they are in good working order, ensuring that electrical gadgets are suitably fitted to avoid potential danger and ensure that furniture used are ideal for the user whether a student or staff.

Items that require manual handling are strictly handled within the manual handling regulation and the school ensures that staff is appropriately trained for that. Additionally, we have learners who may have challenging behaviour. Fortunately, I am leaf-trained or team-teach trained to handle students with challenging behaviour with the pretext of safeguarding the child and young people in my school, including staff that may not be trained in handling challenging behaviour.

 

References

Claire, R (2023) What are learning resources for teachers? How are they helpful? Available at: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/professional-development/teacher-educators/knowing-subject/articles/what-are-learning-resources (Accessed 13 March 2024)

Curson, L.B. (1985) Teaching in Further Education: An outline of Principles and Practices. 3^rd Edn. Great Britain: Biddles Ltd, Guildford

Fearn, H. and Keay, J. (2021) Curriculum: Keeping it simple. Available at: https://educationinspection.blog.gov.uk/2021/12/08/curriculum-keeping-it-simple/ (Accessed 24 March 2024)

Danielle, L. (2020) 17 Learning Strategies to implement in your classroom. Available at: https://tophat.com/blog/learning-strategies/ (Accessed 10 April 2024)

Fisher, R. (1995) Teaching Children to Think. United Kingdom: Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd

Fulton, D. (2012) Placing Students At the Heart of Creative Learning. Great Britain: TJ International Ltd

Johnson, J. (2001) The Literacy Skills Test. Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd

Nest (2024) A reasonable approach to classroom safety. Available at: https://worknest.com/blog/schools-classrom-health-safety-2/#:~:text=In%20a%20classroom%20environment%2C%20significant,in%20one%20classroom%20risk%20assessment (Accessed 28 April 2024)

Safesmart (2024) How to create a Classroom Health and Safety Checklist. Available at: https://safesmart.co.uk/health-safety-checklist-for-use-in-classrooms/ (Accessed 13 May 2024)

Ewles, L. and Simnett, I. (2003) Promoting Health: A practical Guide. 5^th Edn. United Kingdom: Elsevier Science Limited

 

AUTHOR:

PRINCE FODAY

Educationist, Economist and Professional Freelance Journalist

 

 

 

UNDERSTANDING HOW TO SUPPORT SEN AND ESOL

Author: Prince Foday

 

The Common Types of Special Educational Needs in Children and Young People

Special, Language and Communication Needs (SLCN) is about challenges around one or more areas of communication like difficulties in understanding statements from people, stammering and interacting with others.

Social, Emotional and Mental Health (SEMH) are difficulties linked with being withdrawn coupled with disturbing behaviour. The disturbing behaviour may be due to mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, etc. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Persuasive Development Disorder, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), Bipolar and Anxiety Disorder are other behavioural disorder associated with some children and young people. Children and young people with SEMH may find it difficult to cope with sustainable healthy relationships.

Sensory and/or physical and medical need refers to disabilities based on sensory (visual and hearing impairments) and physical (limitations on a person’s physical mobility or having problems with stamina).

Cognitive and Learning Difficulties is form of disability associated with a children and young people with a slower pace in learning. Children and young people may face a broad range of learning needs such as moderate learning difficulties (MLD), severe learning difficulties (SLD), profound and multiple learning difficulties (PMLD) and specific learning difficulties ( SPLD). MLD can be evidenced through understanding of abstract ideas, fine and gross motor skills, problem solving and building ideas, organising steps required to complete a duty, organising and coordinating written and spoken language, and memory and reasoning skills. SLD is linked with severe cognitive and intellectual impairments and children and young people with such impairment  need support when engaging with established curriculum, and may have problems with self-help skills, perception, communication, mobility and coordination. PMLD shows the situation where children and young people have significant difficulties with self- care, receptive and expressive language, attention and concentration, social competence and self-organisation. SPLD is a learning difficulty that covers conditions such as dyslexia (deficiency in reading, spelling words and accuracy), dyscalculia ( difficulty with solving mathematical problems or understanding numbers), dysgraphia ( a neurological problem that makes it difficult for a person to build letters in writing) and  dyspraxia ( having motor learning difficulties and developmental coordination- problems with memory, processing, judgment, movement, coordination, etc.)

An Outline of the Different Ways in Which Children and Young People with Learning Difficulties Can Be Supported

The learning environment is significant to reduce auditory information overload through clear and simple communication. Making speaking and writing short, facing and calling for quiet during instructions are important for learners.

Using the right resources based on the need of the learner should be taken into consideration. The child may be a kinaesthetic learner (learns best through doing and moving), an auditory learner (learns best by reading) and visual learner (learns best by reading or seeing). Kinaesthetic learners need hands on through field trips and doing experiments. Auditory learners can be supported through reading notes aloud or listening to audio on the subject. Visual learners learn through illustrations, highlighted notes, flash cards, videos, books and visual aids.

Praise is an important for learners. This can be done through rewarding students and establishing a positive tone in the classroom. The use of 5 positive statements and then a negative remark can be a helpful tool in the classroom (5 plus 1 rule). Although it is good to offer praise to students, it is appropriate to be consistent with disciplinary procedures and avoid using reward to influence appropriate behaviour.

 

Having a network of relationship around the child and young people can lead to a safe and ideal team capable of  building trust. That requires building partnership with parents and guardians that commit a consistent support to the child and young people.

It takes time to build trusted relationship with the people, particularly for those with attachment difficulties. The child and young people should be accepted for who they are and allowing time to build relationship with them matters.

People with attachment difficulties find it hard to encourage strangers in their lives- that hold for the child and young people too. It is challenging for the child with attachment difficulties to allow to be groomed by strangers, hence, there is the need for adults delivery care to be firm with safeguarding practice.

Outside support is important to parents and guardians with children and young people having special educational needs. The local information, advice and support services (IASS) can be contacted for information and guidance. The scope of information provided by IASS is huge and that covers information on the local authorities complaints procedure and process of resolving disputes, advice for the parents of children and young on gathering, understanding, interpretation and application of information to their situation, legal issues pertinent to children and young people with special educational needs, personalised budget, the local offer and local policy and practices.

Description of the Effect of a Primary Disability on Children and Young People

Children and young people suffering from physical disability are held back by opportunities around them and that will have an effect on their social, emotional and physical development.

Social impacts are those outcomes of primary disability experience at personal, family and community levels. At personal level, Child and young people with disability struggle with maintaining positive self-esteem. People with disabilities build an attitude that have the consequence of a negative behaviour. Disability can lead to low self-esteem- the situation where people feel undervalue and insured. A person with disability may lack a sense of belonging that will limit them from interacting with colleagues and otherwise. The insecurities linked with disability lead people with disability to isolate themselves from social activities, thereby making it difficult for an accessible and inclusive society. At family level, families caring for children with special needs are at the risk of poverty due to loss of paid job. The poverty situation of families can build tension at the domestic front, thereby leading to potential divorce or separation. At community level, negative community attitudes falsely stigmatise disability as been bad luck and shameful. Such a stigma limits those with disability from engaging in  livelihoods, healthcare, education and other areas of life. Community stigmatised attitudes around people with disability is as a result of prejudice, discrimination, fear and limited awareness. Such a negative behaviour within communities is unhealthy for our inclusive world and that has an impact on a nation’s income drive. 

Emotions have a strong impact on our day-to-day lives. People’s daily decision is based on whether they are sad, happy, frustrated, bored and angry. The child’s physical symptom can influence his or her emotional development. The degree of physical disability of a child can have an impact on their mood and behaviour. When a child is distress, their behaviour becomes harder to control. Disability can result to emotional disorders where a child or young person loses both school and outside interests. Emotional and behavioural disorders (EBD) are particular mental health disorders that cause acute challenges with both behaviours and emotions. Children and young people with EBD find it difficult to show the right behaviour and regulate emotions. Emotional and Behavioural Disorder makes it difficult for the child to control actions and feelings, impact on their success in school, and affects their general happiness. EBD can impact the child’s behaviour, cognitive functioning, social development and feelings.

Physical disabilities like asthma or speech and learning impairment can limit children from engaging in games, sports and other social activities. The child’s limitation from sport and social activities can build frustrations leading the child to misbehave because they are unable to join the physical activity. Children and young people with physical disability find it difficult to join their colleagues to play and that is even serious where there is sensory impairment and challenges with communication. People with physical disability, children and young people inclusive, are meant to experience social discrimination and lack of integrated care. The child and young people with physical disability may time and again have difficulty in building positive social emotional mental health, processing and regulating and dealing with sensory information, social interaction, managing pain and fatigue, communicating with others, building self-care skills, doing work independently, recording ideas and thoughts clearly and on time, undertaking practical tasks, engaging in learning and assessment, utilising equipment and facilities safely and accessing the physical environment.

Analysis of the Nature and Level of Sensory and Physical Needs of Children within an Educational Setting

Children within an educational  setting may  have different forms of disabilities. Their disabilities are evidenced from the condition of the body (impairment) making it difficult to partake in certain activities (activity limitation) and have social interaction (participation restrictions). The disability within an educational  setting ranges from social relations, mental health, hearing, communicating, learning, remembering, thinking, movement, and vision.

Physical and sensory impairment covers a wide range of medical conditions and affects a person’s body and mind, making it difficult for a person to undertake normal daily activities. The impairment may be mild, moderate and severe. Some children and young people may have hearing or visual difficulties, epilepsy, autistic spectrum disorder and learning needs.

Sensory impairment is the malfunctioning of one’s senses such as hearing, sight, smell, touch and taste. Hearing impairment is associated with hearing loss and it may range from mild to severe. Visual impairment is the loss of a perfect sight and can range from zero sight to some degree of valuable sight. Some children and young people have a delay in sensory development and struggle to take part in everyday activities.

Some children and young people with physical disabilities may be cognitively able.

Examples of disabilities that can be observed in educational settings are:

• Cognitive and learning- This is about memory and understanding
• Conditions evident during childhood- These are Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity  Disorder (ADHD)

Below is a case study of physical and sensory assessments within an educational setting

Physical and Sensory Assessment 1

Name: JFC

Date of Assessment: 10^th February 2022

Observation: Diagnosis of ASD; physically healthy and fit; very lively and like talking to himself; can use toilet, change cloth, eat independently; can independently follow clear and simple instructions;  do not write with hand but increasingly good at typing; have no awareness of traffic

Support: Likes  going to gym when hyper; needs hand on shoulder to calm down when hyper; needs carton of milk or pre-cut apple as a reward for working well; can regulate when put in quiet corner; likes clear and calm voice; like a quiet and ordered working environment

 

Physical and Sensory Assessment 2

Name: IB

Date of Assessment: 6^th July 2021

Observation: Diagnosis of ASD and ADHD; can independently go to toilet but need help to wash hands; can feed himself independently but need reminder to use cutlery; can dress and undress himself but need prompting; like being naked sometimes; can repeat himself a lot and can slap his neck when frustrated; he can communicate well; can be frustrated by change in routine

Support: He needs visual timetable to know what is now and next and need adults to regularly interact the schedule with him; likes to address as IB to know you are talking to him; he has to observed at all times in class, school trips and otherwise, as he can run or get missing

Physical and Sensory Assessment 3

Name: TW

Date of Assessment: 22^nd October 2022

Observation: Diagnosis of ASD and down syndrome; lactose intolerant and not allowed dairy products; underactive thyroid; can independently use toilet, eat, wear and take cloth; need adult support to help manage behaviour; has severe communication difficulty; enjoys being around adults and peers but have difficulty in initiating social interaction-this means he can hit, kick, push or spit to gain attention

Support: Need adult to remind him to aim at toilet; need verbal reminders and sometimes need help to wipe himself; need support with transitions, pre-warning at the end of an activity and reminding verbally what is next; sometimes need support when travelling around the school and at lunch time as he finds those times difficult and challenging.

Physical and Sensory Assessment 4

Name: CFB

Date of Assessment: 15^th June 2021

Observation: She has diagnosis of ASD and epilepsy; can follow verbal instructions; she needs 5-10 seconds to process information before acting upon it; can independently go to toilet; can eat independently under supervision; she does not like loud noise; can be frustrated when not being understood or denied something that she likes; she is attention seeking; she can scratch, pinch, bite scream and throw herself  on the floor when frustrated or denied what she wants; she likes seeking sensory experiences.

Support: she needs prompting to get changed; sometimes need prompting to consistently use cutlery when eating; need space and time for herself; need clear and consistent instructions

Describing the Roles and Responsibilities of Others that Contribute to the Support of Learners with Sensory and /or Physical needs

Community Paediatrician is a specialist doctor employed by the health and social care Trust, and has the responsibility of examining the need of children and young people. The doctor can discuss concerns about potential learning difficulties, provide advisory services on health matters and pass on important concerns to education authority in the region upon consent.

Designated Medical Officer has the task of gathering statutory medical and social services advice. It is a must for all children and young people to undergo medical assessment to determine whether they have an important medical need.

Educational psychologists are required to provide advisory service to the education authority as component part of a child’s statutory assessment. They are qualified and experienced teachers and must hold a post graduate qualification in developmental and educational psychology. Educational psychologists can provide advice on the educational needs of the child and young people, and suggest ways to assist the child and young people.

Health Visitor is a qualified nurse having specialist training and may refer pre-school child and young people with special educational needs to the community paediatrician. They may be asked for advice from designated medical officer when on the process of making statutory assessment.

Learning Support Teacher are employed by education authority and there to support teachers in schools, and directly assist the child and young people.

Named Officer provides support, help and advice to parents during the process of child’s assessment. They are by and large employed in the special education section of the education authority in the region.

Occupational Therapist provides assessment, rehabilitation and treatment to the child and young people that have  processing, co-ordination and physical problems. They are employed by health and social care trust and may be asked by designated medical officer to give advice in the process of statutory assessment.

Physiotherapist is trained to give assessment and treatment in getting over physical and movement problems like challenges in coordination, walking, standing, sitting and balance. They are employed by health and social care trust and may be asked by designated medical officer for advice in the process of statutory assessment.  

Explaining the Specialist Equipment and Technology that Would Be Used By Learners with Sensory and/or Physical Needs

Assistive Technology: These are broad range of tools that can support someone to communicate, learn and undertake daily functions. Assistive technology can be low-tech (sensory balls, picture boards and weighted vests that does not require electricity), mid-tech (visual timers and sensory toys that are inexpensive to operate) and high-tech (augmentative communication technology for non-verbal children and young people and robots built to improve their social skills that operate digitally).

Audio Players and Recorders: The use of audio visual material can be significant to teaching process. Audio-visual-aids (AVA) can widen the medium of communication between the teacher and students in a classroom.  The idea of teaching based on sound produced by the teacher generates  the feeling that communication can best be achieved through the channel of sound. Engaging students’ senses of hearing, touching and seeing, etc., can be facilitated through AVA as such form of communication relates to all senses and the right inspiration provided by the educator.

ICT Technology Platforms: These are mediating instruments used to support students to gain understanding. The use of ICT technology instruments such as closed circuit television, micro-projector and overhead projector can enhance student perception, assimilation and retention of learning materials. Email, messaging, phone calls, WhatsApp, Zoom, and Google meet and other ICT technology platforms are important for learning and socialising.

Reading Guides/Coloured Overlays: Colour overlays are usually utilised as solution for the visual stress indicators co-occurring with dyslexia. A latest report show that visual stress indicators pose a strong sensory stimulus coupled with a dense written text, and that might result to a decrease in effectiveness of the hindering systems in the visual perspective, hence, leading to an extreme excitation of the cortical neurons and that would have the ultimate effect of distortions and illusions. Wilkins and Evans (2010) advanced colour outlays to be efficient because they allocate the extreme excitation and hence diminish the indicators of visual stress, thereby enhancing written text processing and written. The following points are significant for reading guides and colour outlays: autistic people desire enough space around them and find it difficult to deal with crowds, cluster and narrow spaces; pattern colours can be agonising and devastating for some people; people with autism have a conceive meaning for different colours and that has different effects on them-yellow and red are stimulating, light blue helps in concentration and green is restful; sleeping difficulties can be treated through darkness and soft bed-time music; autistic people find fluorescent lighting distracting and unbearable.

Timer: Timers are utilised as visual aids to check how much time is left to complete a task. Sand timers and wristwatches are some examples of timers. Timers can assist students having difficulties with transitioning from task to task and it can mentally aid them to switch from one task to the other.

FM Listening System:  The symbol FM refers to frequency modulation. FM system allows the speaker to use microphone whilst the listener wears microphone. The receiver is a simple pair of headphones or hearing device that channels a sound from a speaker. Children and young people that are deaf often use FM systems to mitigate the challenges in listening. Listening devices can be in the form of hearing aids or cochlear implants.

Calculator: This is a useful resource meant to assist in numerical awareness and mathematical thinking strategies of children and young people. Calculators are significant tool for learning arithmetic operations, promoting problem-solving and substitute to thinking. The type of calculator to use depends on the ability of the child in solving mathematical problems. There are calculators for different levels of students. Simple calculator is use for students with low level in arithmetic calculations. There are large-display and talking calculators available for students. Talking calculator has a built-in speech output to make operational keys, numbers and symbols sound loud and ensure that students press the right key.

Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC): This includes gesturing, giving thumps up, pointing, frowning and waving. The categories of AAC consist of non-aided ( such as body language, pointing, gestures and facial expression), aided ( like the use of assisting technology equipment- both software and hardware) and paper-based ( such as auditory scanning books, spelling boards, pragmatic organisation dynamic display book and many more).

Writing Support: Lots of students with learning disabilities have challenges with the different dimensions of written language. Many have problems with the issue of editing, revising, grammar and spelling. The advancement in technology has made it possible for children with learning difficulties to use word prediction, keyboards arranged in alphabetical and sound-based keyboards meant to enhance text entry, and spell-check devices useful for writing support.

Identifying the Language and Vocabulary that is Appropriate to the Age of Learners, and their Individual Level of Understanding and Proficiency, and How to Introduce New Concepts

Language is the integration of gestures, words and social skills that are capable of assisting us in communicating with others. It is away in which we show our feelings, thoughts and link with others. Teaching children and young people the right form of language and vocabulary can be important in building their knowledge and ability to become good citizens.

It is important to build routines and create the environment where children and young people can learn for a successful pathway in life. To achieve such a successful pathway in life, teachers and parents/guardians should establish set of boundaries, have to be explicit with rules and consequences, should be good role models, have to be cognisance of media and other models, be familiar with ages and stages.  Children and young people should be taught to be polite when talking (refrain from swearing or cursing or avoid using invective words) and have the patience to take turns or allow others to have their say. Teachers and parents/guardians should assist the child to understand what is allowed and know the result of breaking defined rules.  It is significant to obey establish rules (consistency in the use of appropriate language) as children and young people would be constantly observing the behaviour of their role model.  Children and young people should be encouraged to avoid inappropriate media, music and television as it will not teach them to learn appropriate language.  It is challenging to use appropriate language based on the child’s age and development coupled with the situation where there are children of varying ages –it is important to be mindful  about what to say even where a child is young and cannot speak as he or she is  capable of absorbing  information around them.

Using appropriate language and vocabulary for children and young people can encourage their self-awareness, self-management, build their relationship skills, enable them self-regulate, and build their social and emotional proficiency. Recognising age appropriate language is significant in enlightening the child to be a respectful student, family member and peer. It is important to stress that various environments demand different diction or voice tone (for example, loud voice can be acceptable during play time but not when in the Library where quietness is needed)-educating the child about culture, equality and diversity are important for them to  adjust to social norms and be socially responsible. Children and young should be taught to use appropriate language for their peer, the elderly and in formal situations-slangs can be used among peers but that needs to be avoided when talking to the elderly or within a formal settings. Assisting the child and young people to build language and vocabulary skills is important for the early childhood classroom. The task for teachers, parents and guardians is to ensure that the child uses the right language and vocabulary at the appropriate time, and that the most significant element to a child’s success as a learner is the volume of vocabulary at their disposal from the early childhood. The three types of language skills that teachers should keep in mind are expressive language (words used by children when the talk), receptive language (words children can comprehend) and pragmatic language (words children can utilise in a social environment). 

A sound knowledge about English language proficiency for supporting learners is significant for teachers and schools. The Bell Foundation’s award-winning English as Additional Language (EAL) Assessment Framework for schools established a set of standards to support teachers and schools. The levels of English proficiency set by the Bell Foundation are new to English (working at band A), early acquisition (working at band B), developing competence (working at band C), competent (working at band D) and Fluent (working at band E). New to English learners need substantial support to access curriculum content (show competence in managing simple phrases); display minimal or no knowledge in written English; demonstrate superficial competence in simple oral expression; connect with learning simple or basic classroom language, participate in  immense scaffold listening activities and can connect sounds to meanings and actions. Early acquisition learners display competence in providing basic or simple sentences and paragraphs on known topics; build sense out of written text on words and phrase-can use visual information to understand meaning; demonstrate signs of competence in communicating verbally; display a level of autonomy in developing speech. Developing competence learners can show competence in narrating and describing personal experiences with high level of accuracy and will begin to explore complex writing; illustrate from ongoing knowledge of vocabulary and grammar to participate in curriculum-related task; show signs of competence in impulsive communication; demonstrate independence in the use of simple listening skills desired to participate in learning. Competent learners show competence in managing the structure and content of writing with greater accuracy and with complete range of grammar and vocabulary; participate in autonomous curriculum-related reading activities in various subjects; display competence in providing more complex speech in wider range of forms; capable of producing improved listening skills over a wider range of functions and contexts. Fluent learners demonstrate the capability to comprehend and respond to verbal communication in classroom and within social context with little or no difficulty; display competence in creative and fluent use of English; participate independently in curriculum-related reading activities in different subjects; show competence in independently and accurately writing a variety of language and vocabulary.

Vocabulary is a significant aspect of learning English and that is a little different from learning grammar or otherwise. In teaching new vocabulary, it is important to initially recognise  what we mean by saying that a student `understand’ a word-is that meant to be that the student know the word  and can approximately interpret its meaning when they come across it in a text? Do we mean the learner can use the word accurately in writing or speaking? The suggested five principles to considered when teaching new vocabulary in the case of  English as a Second Language (ESL) are Activating  Schema to introduce new vocabulary, Teaching Vocabulary Context, Building Collocations, Reviewing and Recycling Vocabulary and Planning for Difficult Levels. Activating Schema is a way of introducing a new theme and allowing them to express what they already know about it-this requires organising the students into short discussion groups, which is form of diagnostic assessment. Teaching Vocabulary Context enable students to accurately use a new word in a context through a structural requirement-it is important for the learners to know whether the word should follow by another with a change in meaning or verb to be used actively or passively or should the word be followed by a specific proposition or should the word have a positive or negative link. Building Collocations requires students to develop list of adjectives and figure-out their antonyms-a group of students can be given an assignment to build a map for the word ‘clear’ and link them with words that can go with it, 3 of which are collocations and 2 of which is not. Reviewing and Recycling Vocabulary involve the exposition of students to recurring words to assist them stick in their mind-encouraging learners to listen to new and read newspapers can open their mind to repeatedly used vocabulary and expose them to natural review and recycling. Planning for Different Levels entail the use of pyramid (separated into thirds) : the top third being the words or ideas that higher -level students are capable of digesting, the middle third being words or ideas that are expected to be understood by 60% of the class and the bottom third being the words or vocabulary that students find it easy t digest at the end of the lesson. 

References

AFasic (2022) What Do We Mean by Talking? Available a: What Do We Mean by Talking? - Afasic (Accessed 23/02/2023)

Kirklees Council (2022) Social, emotional, mental health difficulties (SEMH)- Including behaviour. Available at: Social, emotional & mental health difficulties (SEMH) - including behaviour | A-Z of specific conditions | Kirklees SEND Local Offer (kirkleeslocaloffer.org.uk) (Accessed 25/03/2023)

The National Association of School-Based Teacher Trainers (2023) Sensory and/or physical. Available at: Sensory and/or physical - NASBTT (Accessed 01/03/2023)

Oldham Council (2023) Identifying Physical and Sensory Needs. Available at: Identifying needs in Sensory and Physical | Oldham Council (Accessed 02/03/2023)

Professionals (2023) Cognition and learning. Available at: Cognition and learning – Professional resources (lincolnshire.gov.uk) (Accessed 05/03/2023)

NHS (2022) Dyslexia. Available at: Dyslexia - NHS (www.nhs.uk) (Accessed 10/03/2023)

British Dyslexia Association (2022) Dyscalculia. Available at: Dyscalculia - British Dyslexia Association (bdadyslexia.org.uk) (Accessed 15/03/2023)

Roland, J. (2018) What is Dysgraphia? Available at: Dysgraphia: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Management (healthline.com) (Accessed 20/03/2023)

Newman, T. (2017) What is dyspraxia? Available at: Dyspraxia: Causes, symptoms, and treatments (medicalnewstoday.com) (Accessed 25/03/2023)

Dunoon, L. (2022) 17 ways Teachers can support A student with learning difficulties. Available at: 17 Ways To Support A Student With Learning Difficulties (dyslexiadaily.com)  (Accessed 27/03/2023)

HelpGuide (2022) Helping children with learning disabilities. Available at: Helping Children with Learning Disabilities - HelpGuide.org (Accessed 06/042023)

Bomber, L.M. (2007) Inside I’m Hurting: Practical Strategies for Supporting Children with Attachment Difficulties in School. 1^stEdn. United Kingdom: Worth Publishing (Accessed 12/04/2023)

Family Monster (2023) Supporting children with learning disabilities. Available at: Supporting children with learning disabilities - Family Action (family-action.org.uk) (Accessed 16/04/2023)

Peterson, T.J. (2023) What are Emotional and Behavioural Disorder. Available at: What Are Emotional and Behavioral Disorders? | HealthyPlace  (Accessed  20/04/2023)

Jacobson, S. (2023) Physical Disability and Mental Health-How connected are they? Available at: Physical Disability and Mental Health - How Connected are They? - Harley Therapy™ Blog (Accessed 24/04/2023)

Sunrise Medical Limited (2023) Self-Esteem and Self-Image in people with disabilities. Available at: https://www.sunrisemedical.co.uk/blog/self-esteem-with-disabilities (Accessed 28/04/2023)

Bond (2017) Stigma, disability and development. Available at: https://bond.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/stigma_disability_and_development.pdf (02/052023)

Pdnet (2022) Physical Disability. Available at https://pdnet.org.uk/about/what-is-a-physical-disability/ (Accessed 07/05/2023)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020) Disability and Overview. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/disabilityandhealth/disability.html (Accessed 11/05/2023)

Nasen (2020) Sensory and/or Physical Needs. Available at: Sensory and Physical | Whole School SEND (Accessed 14/05/2023)

Midlands Partnership NHS Foundation Trust (2022) Community Paediatrics- South Staffordshire. Available at: Community Paediatrics - South Staffordshire | Staffordshire Connects (Accessed 15/05/2023)

Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea (2019) What is a Designated Medical Officer (DMO)? Available at: What is a Designated Medical Officer (DMO)? | Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea (rbkc.gov.uk) (Accessed 17/05/2023)

Surrey County Council (2023) the role of educational psychologists and how they work with schools in Surrey. Available at: The role of educational psychologists and how they work with schools in Surrey - Surrey County Council (surreycc.gov.uk) (Accessed 18/05/2023)

Local Government Association (2017) what do health visitors do? Available at: Improving outcomes for children and families in the early years: a key role for health visiting services (local.gov.uk)  (Accessed 20/05/2023)

NSW Government (2023) Disability, learning and support. Available at: Roles and responsibilities (nsw.gov.au) (Accessed 21/05/2023)

Grange School (2023) Family Liaison Officer. Available at: Family Liaison Officer | Grange School (Accessed 22/05/2023)

Millaci, T.S. (2021) School-Based Occupational Therapy and Its Goal Explained. Available at: School-Based Occupational Therapy and Its Goals Explained (positivepsychology.com) (Accessed 23/05/2023)

The Association of Paediatric (2016) Physiotherapy in Schools: A guide for schools and professionals. Available at: Physiotherapy in Schools - A guide for schools and professionals | Association of Paediatric Chartered Physiotherapists (csp.org.uk) (Accessed 24/05/2023)

Pugh, N. (2021) The Modern Role of a SENCO. Available at: The Modern Role of a SENCo • SEN Magazine (Accessed 25/05/2023)

British Association of Social Workers (2023) What do social workers do? Available at: What do social workers do? (basw.co.uk) (Accessed 26/05/2023)

Education Endowment Foundation (2023) Teaching Assistant Intervention. Available at: Teaching Assistant Interventions | EEF (educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk)(Accessed 27/05/2023)

Royal College of Speech and Language Theapists (2023) Where SLTS work-education. Available at: Role of speech and language therapy in education | RCSLT (Accessed 29/05/2023)

Rudy, L.J. (2023) Assistive Technology for Autism. Available at: Assistive Technology for Autism: Tools and Benefits (verywellhealth.com) (Accessed 04/06/2023)

Wilkins A. J., Nimmo-Smith I., Tait A., McManus C., Della Sala S., Tilley A., et al. (1984). A neurological basis for visual discomfort. Brain 107 989–1017 10.1093/brain/107.4.989 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] (Accesed 07/06/2023)

Matusiak, M. (2023) How to create an autism –friendly envornment. Available at: How to create an autism-friendly environment - Living Autism (Accessed 09/06/2023)

Morin, M. (2023) 8 examples of assistive technology and adaptive tools. Available at: Assistive Technology Tools That Can Help With Learning Disabilities | Understood (Accessed 23/06/2023)

Schectman, T. (2023) 20 Visual Timers For children with Special Needs. Available at: Friendship Circle / Resources (Accessed 27/06/2023)

Higgins-Walsh, E. (2023) What is Augmentative and Alternative Communication and how can it benefit autistic people? Available at: What is Augmentative and Alternative Communication and how can it benefit autistic people? (autism.org.uk) (Accessed 13/07/2023)

Berry, M. (2023) FM Systems for people with hearing loss. Available at: https://www.healthyhearing.com/help/assistive-listening-devices/fm-systems (Accessed 15/07/2023)

Baum-Sehon, K. (2020) Using Calculators to deepen Students’ Engagement With Math. Available at: https://www.edutopia.org/article/using-calculators-deepen-students-engagement-math (16/08/2023)

Rymanowicz, K. and O’Connell, K. (2021) Teaching children appropriate language: Part 2. Available at: https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/teaching-children-appropriate-language-part-2 (Accessed 09/09/2023)

Rymanowicz, K. and O’Connell, K. (2021) Teaching children appropriate language: Part 1. Available at: https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/teaching-children-appropriate-language-part-2 (Accessed 14/09/2023)

Fiechtner, J. (2017) Supporting language development: Building relationships in the childhood classroom. Available at: https://www.communityplaythings.co.uk/learning-library/articles/supporting-language-development (Accessed 18/09/2023)

The Bells Foundation ( ) Levels of Proficiency in English. Available at: https://www.bell-foundation.org.uk/eal-programme/eal-assessment-framework/levels-of-proficiency-in-english/ (Accessed 21/09/2023)

Ontesol (2022) How To Teach Vocabulary to ESL Students. Available at: https://ontesol.com/how-to-teach-vocabulary-esl-students/ (Accessed 25/09/2023)

Author: Prince Foday

Email: zopsianechoes@gmail.com